Active Listening Paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Active Listening Paper - Essay Example Active Listening is the most superior listening in which listener strives to pay maximum attention to what is being said and conveyed. Active listening is characterized by a prompt feedback to the speaker on what is perceived or understood of his vocals and actions. Gordon (2002, p.81) states, â€Å"Situations requiring the use of emphatic listening are almost limitless in groups and organizations.† The empathy to the speaker is the basic requirement for active listening. The active listening is a very significant contributor towards a better team work in organizations where communications are a major concern to achieve business objectives. In order to highlight the importance and interplay of various active listening aspects, a fictitious organizational communication scenario is sketched in the following lines. The scenario depicts, evaluates and analyzes a conversational session between the writer, who is a Marketing Manager in a network consultancy firm and listening to Mr. John who is a customer support supervisor. Mr. John is required to brief me on the issues pertaining to some major clients and seeks to have some advice on applicable solution. I have got some previous reservations on Mr. John’s approach and working towards achieving organizational objectives in the field of customer support. The first obstacle to my active listening objective was to overcome my general perception about the speaker and to concentrate objectively on the currents issues being discussed by Mr. John. It was necessary for me to avoid any preoccupations to ensure empathic comprehension of the issues and formulation of workable solutions. In order to make Mr. John comfortable I welcomed him warmly to show my concern and interest in the issues and spared enough time to listen in detail. Secondly, I appreciated Mr. John’s efforts that he

Interpreting different cultures Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words - 1

Interpreting different cultures - Essay Example meaning of this statement is that the differences that people living a certain place have makes them unique in their various ways, similar to those living in another place. When people come together they can exchange this ideas, thus learn how to treasure and value each other. According to Louis Dumont, the oneness that has to exist in the different human societies does not often require reducing the diversity to that of unity. The people living in a certain place or culture need to have a common language, which plays an essential role towards passing that culture from one generation to another. One of the things that can be critical towards ensuring the success of the different human cultures is developing an effective understanding of these cultures. This understanding is important since it helps in the preservation of those cultures for other people to learn from them. In this regard, the society needs to created special institutions in which people’s cultural differences can be understood effectively. This paper examines the importance of the differences existing in human cultures focusing on ways of understanding these cultures in the most effective way. It focuses on the views and perspectives provided by Richard Shweder’s and Geertz’s views in their â€Å"Culture Theory† and â€Å"The Interpretation of Culture† respectively. Culture, as an independent term has often been given different meanings. To some people, culture can be described as the appreciation of the different art, food, literature and music among others (Gannon & Rajnandini,  2010). To biologists and other researchers in this field; it simply means a colony of microorganisms and other kinds of bacteria that grow in a special kind of nutrient medium specially kept in a Petri dish in the laboratory. For behavioral scientists and anthropologists, culture is interpreted as the broad range of various learned human actions and other behavioral patterns. In this regard, culture is taken to

Physicological Characterization of M.VITRJS5

Physicological Characterization of M.VITRJS5 Monica Samal, Teena Patra, Suthindhiran K Abstract Magnetospirillium sp. is a Gram – negative ÃŽ ±-proteobacterium which has the ability to move towards the geomagnetic field lines of Earth’s magnetic field. The group of bacteria is collectively called Magnetotactic bacteria (MTB). MTB produce intracellular organelles called magnetosomes which help them in its search for optimal living conditions in complex environment. MTB is a gradient – requiring microorganism that are difficult to replicate in growth medium in the laboratory. In this work the physiological characterization of MTB strain Magnetospirillium sp. VITRJS5 was done as well as a modified growth medium for the growth of Magnetospirillium sp. VITRJS5 was developed. The media components are studied based on the physiological characteristics of the bacteria. The role of electron donors, electron acceptors, nitrogen sources, carbon sources, iron containing compounds, phosphates, reducing agents, on the growth of the bacteria in the MS1 media was studied. The growth of the bacteria in the novel modified MS media was analysed and compared with commercial MTB media such as MSGM (Magnetospirillum growth media) and Schuler’s oxygen – sulphur gradient media. An increase in growth is observed in the modified MS media compared to the commercially available media. 1. INTRODUCTION: Magnetotactic bacteria are fastidious microorganisms that represent a morphologically and physiologically diverse group of bacteria. The presence of intracellular, membrane bound nano-sized magnetic particles called magnetosomes assists the bacteria in sustaining an optimal position in redox gradient habitats. Magnetosomes are crystals of iron mineral which consist of either iron oxide (Fe3O4) or iron sulphide (Fe3S4). A combination of aerotaxis, magnetotaxis and chemotaxis helps MTB to move away from oxygen in surface water, thus directing them in maintaining an optimal position in and around the oxic-anoxic interface (OAI). Magnetospirillum sp. is the most studied and well understood group of bacteria among MTB. Magnetospirillum sp. was mostly isolated from fresh water habitats and many pure cultures were available in many laboratories around the world. Magnetotactic Bacteria (MTB) species have characteristic organelles called magnetosomes that contain magnetic crystals. These magnetosomes give them the ability to move in response to the earth’s magnetic field (magnetotaxis). MTB were first observed by Salvatore Bellini in the year 1963 and collected from different freshwater environments near Pavia, Italy [1,2]. The most studied species of Magnetospirillum genus are species of Ms. gryphiswaldense [5], Ms. Magneticum[7], Ms. magnetotacticum [8]. The MTB strains isolated from marine or brackish environments include: the coccoid strains: MO-1[9] , Magnetococcus marinus strain MC-1[10] and Magnetofaba australis (IT-1)[11] ; the vibrioid strain: Magnetovibrio blakemorei strain MV-1[12] and the spirilla Magnetospira thiophila (MMS-1)[13] and Magnetospira sp. strain QH-2[14] ; all of which belong to the Alphaproteobacteria. Most magnetotactic bacteria (MTB) are known to be phylogenetically similar to the Alphaproteobacteria, Gammap roteobacteria and Deltaproteobacteria classes of the Proteobacteria and the Nitrospirae phylum with response to magnetosome formation[6]. Magnetotactic bacteria are known to thrive in sediments or chemically stratified water columns, where they occur mostly at the oxic-anoxic interface (OAI), the anoxic regions of the habitat, or both [3]. Although the detection of these in samples is relatively simple [4], magnetotactic bacteria are a fastidious group of prokaryotes, and special culture conditions are necessary for their isolation and cultivation. There is clear evidence that the availability and diversity of MTB in different environments is majorly influenced by salinity and also, iron availability, temperature and concentrations of sulfur and nitrogen compounds are also seen to be clearly important in the distribution of MTB. The respiratory forms of metabolism of genus Magnetospirillum are either chemoorganoheterotropic, using organic acids and carbon source or electron donors. Mostly Magnetospirillum sp. capable of autotrophic and mixotrophic growth and utilize nitrate as alternative terminal oxygen acceptor. Magn etospirillum are obligate microaerophile that requires oxygen even when nitrate is present in the medium. The present study,examined the phylogenetic affiliations and physiological characteristics of Magnetospirillium sp. VITRJS5. To characterize physiological parameters, microaerophillic batch experiments were performed to determine the following: (1) growth pH and temperature ranges, (2) Optimum electronic donor/carbon source and electron acceptor. (3) optimum nitrogen and phosphate source (4) optimum Iron source (5) optimum reducing agent/ sulphur source. Once the preliminary screening of the compounds over different concentrations of the nutritional requirements is determined to develop a modified growth media. 2. Methods and materials: 2.1. Media and microorganism Magnetospirillum VITRJS5 (Accession number: KM289194) is a novel MTB isolated from the fresh water sediment. They are spiral in shape and move towards the earth’s magnetic field. They have polar flagellum at each end of the cell. The strain was obtained from Marine biotechnology and biomedicine lab, VIT University. The bacteria were sub-cultured in Magnetospirillum growth media (MSGM) under microaerophillic conditions Magnetospirillum VITRJS5 was initially grown in previously standardized minimal media MS1 to analyse the growth conditions in the presence of electron donors and acceptors. MS1 media per litre containing K2HPO4 – 850mg, Na2HPO4 – 850mg, NH4H2PO4 – 500mg, MgSO4 – 100mg, FeSO4 7H2O – 5mg, Na2MoO4 – 0.2mg, EDTA – 10mg and Mineral solution 10ml Electron donor and acceptor has to be added accordingly. From the earlier studies, the optimum temperature and pH for the growth of Magnetospirillum is 28 °C and 7.5 pH. 2.2 Determination of electron acceptors and concentration of selected acceptor: For this, 50 ml of MS-1 media was added in five serum bottles and 50 mg of electron donor which in this case is sodium acetate (CH3COONa) was added to each bottle. Then 50 mg of five different acceptors were added in different bottles. These five acceptors are nitrite, selenite, nitrate, thiosulphate and sulphate. Nitrogen was sparged to the media to make it anaerobic, closed with butyl rubber stopper and sealed with aluminium caps. All the anaerobic culturing was performed according to Hungate 1950[15]. The Magnetospirillum VITRJS5 was inoculated to MS1 media. These bottles were kept for overnight incubation in a shaker incubator. Now the different concentrations of selected acceptor is determined .It is done for concentration of 5mM, 10 mM , 15mM, 20 mM and 30 mM . Steps for anaerobic culture was repeated. The absorbance is checked in UV-VIS spectrophotometer at wavelength of 595 nm. 2.3. Determination of electron donors and concentration of selected donor: For this, 50 ml of MS-1 media was added in five serum bottles and 50 mg of electron acceptor which in this case is nitrate was added to each bottle. Then different donors were added in different bottles. These donors are methanol (250  µl), ethanol( 50 µl), glycerol (50 µl), pyruvate (82.5 mg/ 15mM) , citrate (221 mg/ 15mM),succinate (202.6 mg/15mM), lactate(110 µl/15mM), glucose (135.12 mg/15mM), sucrose (256.9 mg/15mM), Ferrous chloride (121.65 mg/15mM)and thiosulphate (186.1 mg/15mM).Nitrogen gas was bubbled into each bottle for anaerobic condition and sample VITRJS5 strain was inoculated in each bottle. These bottles were kept for overnight incubation in a shaker incubator. Narrowing down the number of donors based on the growth of sample. Different concentrations of selected donor are determined. Selected donors are added in different concentration of 5mM, 10mM, 15mM, 20mM and 30 mM. The steps for anaerobic culture are repeated. The absorbance is checked in UV-VIS spectr ophotometer at 595 nm. 2.4. Determination of nitrogen source for optimum growth: MS-1 Media was prepared without nitrogen source (MS-1 media without NH4H2PO4 ) and with the selected concentration of electron donor and acceptor. For this, activity of NH4H2PO4 was checked in different concentrations (5mM, 10mM, 15mM, 20mM and 30 mM) against different concentrations of NH4Cl(5mM, 10mM, 15mM, 20mM and 30 mM).The above described procedure of anaerobic growth was repeated. The absorbance was checked at a wavelength of 595 nm. 2. 5. Determination of reducing for optimum growth: MS-1 media with selected concentration of donor and acceptor was prepared. For this, activity of thiol glycolate was checked in different concentrations of 5mM, 10mM, 15mM, 20mM and 30 mM against cysteine-HCl 4% at concentrations of 50  µl , 100  µl, 150  µl, 200  µl and 500  µl. The procedure for anaerobic culture growth was repeated. The absorbance was checked at 595 nm. 2.6. Determination of iron source for optimum growth MS-1 media with selected concentration of donor and acceptor and without FeSO4 . 7H2O was prepared. For this, activity of ferrous sulphate was checked in different concentrations of 5mM, 10mM and 15mM against ferric citrate at concentrations of 0.5mM, 1.0mM and 1.5mM and against ferric quinate at concentrations of 0.5mM, 1.0mM and 1.5mM. The procedure for anaerobic culture growth was repeated. The absorbance was checked at 595 nm. 3. Result: 3.1 Electron acceptor and its concentration for optimum growth: On incubating the strain M.VITRJS5 in the MS1 media with the various electron acceptors, we obtained various results as seen in table1. From the table, we find that Nitrite, Nitrate and Selenite good electron acceptors for the strain. But we negate the role of Nitrite and Selenite as in nitrite, growth is observed after 2 weeks and selenite is considered toxic. Thus, Nitrate is considered as the most probable electron donor. Next, different concentrations of Nitrate are added to MS1 media to see which concentration of nitrate supports maximum growth (as seen in Table 2 and fig.1) Table 1. Tabular representation of growth with various electron acceptor. Table 2. Tabular representation of absorbance of different concentration of nitrate Fig.1 Graphical representation of the growth with different concentration of nitrate From the above table and fig.1, it is seen that 5mM of nitrate shows maximum growth on all three days. Thus, there is optimum growth seen in 5mM serum bottle. 3.2. Electron donor and its concentration for optimum growth On incubating the strain M.VITRJS5 in the MS1 media with the various electron  donors, we obtained various results as seen in table1.From the table 3, it is seen that growth of M.VITRJS5 is more pronounced with electron donors Ethanol, Glycerol, Pyruvate, Succinate, Lactate, Glucose and Sucrose along with Acetate which was already being used as an electron donor for other MTBs. Among these, Pyruvate, Sucrose and Acetate showed almost double the growth as seen in other electron donors. But we negate Sucrose as an electron donor as it is not economical. Later, different concentrations of Nitrate are added to MS1 media to see which concentration of nitrate supports maximum growth (as seen in Table 2 and fig.1) Table3. Representation of growth with various donors Table 4. Tabular Representation of absorbance of growth with different concentrations of pyruvate Fig 2. Graphical representation of absorbance of growth with different concentrations of pyruvate As seen in the above two graphs and tables, 30mM concentration of pyruvate shows highest growth in comparison with the other concentrations of acetate and pyruvate. 3. Nitrogen source and its concentration for optimum growth: The next step is incubation of M.VITRJS5 strain in MS-1 media(without NH4H2PO4) with Ammonium chloride and Ammonium hydrogen phosphate to determine the better nitrogen source. Fig 4. Graphical representation of absorbance of growth with different concentrations of NH4H2PO4 As seen in figure 4, 5 and tables 6,7, it is observed that the best growth is seen in bottles of Ammonium hydrogen phosphate(NH4H2PO4) rather than that of Ammonium chloride(NH4Cl). The most consistence growth is seen in 20 mM concentration of NH4H2PO4 as compared with other concentrations. 3.4. Carbon source: Since it has already been confirmed that pyruvate acts as the best electron donor, the same can act as a carbon source. 3.5. Phosphorus source: Ammonium hydrogen phosphate acts both as a nitrogen source as well as phosphorys source. 3.6. Sulphur source: Next the M.VITRJS5 strain was incubated in prepared MS-1 media with Sodium thioglycolate and cysteine HCl 4% to determine the better sulphur source. Fig 6. Graphical representation of absorbance of growth with different concentrations of Sodium thioglycolate As seen in fig 6,7 and table 8,9, 50 µl concentration of Cys –HCl shows highest growth as compared to the other concentrations. There was no growth in other concentrations due to the reducing properties of Cysteine HCl and Sodium thioglycolate. MTBs are microaerophilic and hence, would not grow in anaerobic condition. Sulphur is a reducing agent and hence, would remove oxygen species from the media. Therefore, there is less or minimal growth of the bacteria. 3.7 Iron source : Table 10. Tabular representation of absorbance of growth with different concentrations of Ferric citrate Fig 8. Graphical representation of absorbance of growth with different concentrations of Ferric citrate Table 11. Tabular representation of absorbance of growth with different concentrations of quinate Fig 9. Graphical representation of absorbance of growth with different concentrations of Ferric quinate 3.8 Comparison of new media with existing media: 4. Discussion: As already mentioned above, Magnetotactic bacteria (MTBs) are microaerophilic bacteria which have the ability to biomineralise membrane-encased, single-magnetic-domain mineral crystals (magnetosomes) and hence, cause the cell to orientate along the Earth’s geomagnetic field. These mostly occur in aquatic bodies ranging from saline to freshwater environment. Our basic objective in this study was to test the growth of the microaerophilic strain using different concentrations of electron donor, electron acceptor, nitrogen source, carbon source, phosphorus source, sulphur source, iron source, etc. From the study, the following observations have been noted down: The strain M.VITRJS5 was seen to grow well in 5mM concentration of Nitrate (electron acceptor), 30mM concentration of Pyruvate (electron donor and carbon source) and 20mM concentration of Ammonium hydrogen phosphate (nitrogen source and phosphorus source). Also, the growth of the strain was seen to be minimalized in case of Sodium thioglycolate and Cysteine HCl as these are strong reducing agents and thus, would reduce the amount of oxygen species in the media. As mentioned above, these bacteria are microaerophilic and hence, would not grow in sulphur sources (except in 15mM Sodium Thioglycolate and 50 µl Cysteine HCl). The comparison of the present media for Magnetospirillum growth media (MSGM) Schà ¼ler Magnetospirillum isolation media and the new prepared media was done. The new media contained sodium nitrate as acceptor, sodium pyruvate as electron donor and carbon source, ammonium hydrogen phosphate as nitrogen and phosphorus source, ferric citrate as iron source and cysteine HCl as sulphur source. Magnetotactic bacteria has the ability to produce magnetosomes which has stimulated and motivated a new field of research involving scientific and biomedical applications of MTB and diverse commercial which could be improved using magnetic nanocrystals. But the main drawbacks to the application of magnetosomes involves the fastidious nature of MTB related to the growth. Thus,it is difficult to culture them on a large scale, and it is important to understand genetic/environmental control for magnetosome synthesis.

Fast Break Essay -- essays research papers

Fast Break   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The most exciting play in basketball is the fast break. This poem outlines every detail of the fast break and does a great job using the words to create a fantastic visual for the reader. The title of the poem, â€Å"Fast Break,† is actually what the whole poem is describing. The visual that is created is one of the reasons this poem is so appealing. My love for the game of basketball, more specifically at the collegiate level is another reason why this poem catches my attention. The author, Edward Hirsch, is probably the speaker and also a coach or fan of the team that is playing. I would say that he was a player, but all five players of the team are outlined in the poem and it’s not written in the third person. The author might also be mistaken as the head coach of the team; however the poem is in memory of the late Dennis Turner, whom I believe to be the Head Coach. A fast break lasts approximately five seconds on the court and the poem outlines e very motion of both the offense and defense. The author puts the fast break in slow motion for the reader so that they can understand and re-live the play in their imagination.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Each stanza of the poem explains each step of how a fast break is preformed. The first three stanzas begin the fast break which usually starts off from a missed shot by the other team and a defensive rebound. The tall and thin center grabs the rebound and recognizes to immediately get the ba...

Operation Iraqi Freedom Essay

Since the start of â€Å"Operation Iraqi Freedom† on 20th of March 2003, the media coverage of this event in traditional and new media has been both intensive and pervasive. The issue of whether the war is justified and of whether Saddam Hussein had indeed violated the United Nations Security Council Resolution 1441 by possessing weapons of mass destruction has been debated in the lead up to the war. By the time the coalition troops moved into Iraqi in a war aimed at toppling the Saddam regime, viewers were unable to escape being bombarded by the onslaught of news and information coming through to them. Front pages of every major newspaper, as well as precious airtime on television and radio network in Sydney and beyond have been devoted to following this war. Even the Internet is awash with breaking news, discussion forums, and every other sort of information not available in the traditional media outlets. With such extensive reporting by all the different media, it is inevitable that the media bias would lead to vastly differing views in war coverage. This is because having so many people involved in this big media event would mean that the personal biases of the media owners as well as the editors and journalists would all affect the way that the news is conveyed. Each one of these media gatekeepers would be privately pro or anti-war, and this would inevitably come across to the public in the way that the news in being reported. For example, Peter Jennings, who is the news anchor of the American Broadcasting Corporation is well known for bringing on air his negative perspective about the war. According to Singleton, et al (2003: 361), with the exception of publicly funded Australian Broadcasting Corporation, most of the other media outlets â€Å"are privately owned and therefore subject in principle to the direction of the owners, directly or indirectly (through the law of anticipated reactions)†. Even with the Broadcasting Services Act 1992, the Australian media is dominated by only a few concentrated players, which would in turn affect how the media covers the war. John Schwartz, who is a Swinburne University media and communications senior lecturer commented â€Å"on the widely publicised statistic that all bar one of Rupert Murdoch’s 170-odd papers and the Fox network have a pro-war position, said [that] no doubt all his editors are noting Murdoch’s views, [and that] Fox is unbelievably bad†¦almost pure government line†. (cited in Seccombe 2003: 1). However, it is worth noting that even though the different news media locally might adopt a pro or anti-war stance, they would all still be adopting the same western perspective of the war. As Fandy (2003:1) says, the coverage of the war by Arab TV networks like Al-Jazeera and Abu Dhabi TV shows a vastly different perspective of the war, such that in comparison, viewers might think that a different war was being reported. This further illustrates the point that the coverage of the war is always reported in relation to the proximity of the issue at hand, creating some sort of double standards. For example, according to Frisk (2001: 489): † ‘Terrorism’ no longer means ‘terrorism. It is not a definition; it is a political contrivance. †Terrorists’ are those who use violence against the side that is using the word. To adopt the word means that we have taken a side in the Middle East, not between right and wrong, good and evil, David and Goliath, but with one side of combatants against another. For journalists in the Middle East, the use of the word ‘terrorism’ is akin to holding a gun†¦ its employment turns the reporter into a participant in the war.† Parenti (1986: 30) asserts that † the mass media actually are highly centralised outlets that proffer a remarkably homogenised fare†. The wide use of news wires like Associated Press and Reuters by all the major broadsheets in Australia means that the war coverage locally would be generically the same. Even if the local newspapers and television networks decide to send their own reporters to the Gulf to get a different perspectives, it would still be not make a difference, as they are all covering the same press conferences given by Central Command. They are also subjected to pool arrangements at certain times, when only selected journalists and cameramen would be allowed to take footages in the field due to logistical constraints. This means that much of the western world would be viewing the same footages on television no matter which network station a viewer was watching the news on. Advances in technology such as the satellite makes it possible technically for â€Å"the live presentation of [the war in the Gulf] to the rest of the world (Wood 1967: 27). The relatively new feature of war reporting, which involves embedding journalists and cameramen with coalition troops also mean that the war has turned into some kind of reality show for viewers who turn on the television. Viewers can now get live feed from the battlefield, and benefit from the first-hand exclusives and war perspectives from the embedded reporters and cameramen who travel with the army regiments and military units. However, this new aspect of war journalism is not without its drawbacks. While viewers do get immediate breaking news coverage, such technological advances have its downsides as well. The immediate streaming of live feeds to TV stations means that viewers are subject to the speculations of the reporters who are stationed in the Gulf before any official confirmation of the news can be received. For example, there was an instance when, according to Pros and Cons of Embedded Journalism (2003: 1): â€Å"embedded correspondents for several news organisations reported seeing a convoy of up to 120 Iraqi tanks leaving the southern city of Basra, and most news outlets reported a large troop movement. The next day, a spokesman for the British military said the massive movement was really just 14 tanks.† Viewers can also get a distorted view of the war, as it is virtually impossible for the journalists to report the news with in a truly objective and impartial light when they are stationed within the battalions, experiencing camaraderie with the troops and the savouring the excitement of being in the frontline in the midst of all the action. â€Å"Objectivity was to include a strict adherence to facts, a healthy scepticism of institutions, and a need to link facts together to form a larger picture of [the war]† (Willis 1991: 60). As gatekeepers, the media thus shows a constructed, and mostly distorted version of what is reality. In fact, as Howard Kurtz, a journalist with The Washington Post puts it, they â€Å"have been taking considerable flak for overly sympathetic reporting, dismissed by some by some part of the military propaganda machine† (cited in Tee 2003: 2). According to Williams (1999: 4), propaganda disseminated during wartime â€Å"is based around short- to medium term objectives†¦ to celebrate actual achievement or hide embarrassments†¦to invoke national pride, create a feeling of righteousness and incite hatred for the enemy† . Hence, it is not surprising the media bias and perceptions do play a part in the ensuring the scope and accuracy of the war coverage. Even â€Å"the [publicly funded] ABC is shaping its products to fit its perceived audience, and this is not a perspective which is value-neutral† (Lumby 1999: 41). Since there are so many different media sources competing for the viewer’s attention, media owners might also want their reporters to sensationalise their coverage to stand out from the competition. Much of what is deemed to be newsworthy is often centered on â€Å"the government’s mistakes, on sensation and crisis† (Singleton, et al 2003: 360). As Moeller (1999: 34) puts it, â€Å"Media moguls have long known that suffering, rather than good news, sells†. Viewers are not interested in the mundane daily news; they would rather watch something extraordinary or thrilling. However, no matter how bias the media coverage is, it might not actually have much of an effect on the viewers who have already made up their minds about the war. This is because, according to the cognitive dissonance theory, â€Å"we have, built into the workings of our mind, a mechanism that creates an uncomfortable feeling of dissonance, or lack of harmony, when we become aware of some inconsistency among the various attitudes, beliefs, and items of knowledge that constitute our mental store† (Gray 2002: 520). These individuals are likely to be their own media gatekeepers, filtering out information that might cause them to doubt their own current view, and looking out only for information that would reinforce it. Although the media might not explicitly tell the public what to think, it manages to get them thinking about the war in general and the various issues involved, via the agenda-setting function of the media that the public has been subjected to. According to Roscoe et al (cited in Agenda Setting – Setting the Terms of Reference 2000:1): â€Å"Rather than seeing the media as telling the viewer what to think, television presentations can be seen as â€Å"setting the agenda† in terms of how and which issues should be discussed†¦ television presentations frame the events in such a way as to promote particular accounts as being the legitimate and valid, while other accounts are excluded and marginalised. By doing so, the parameters within which the debate can be conducted are set out†¦the media can be seen as having the power to frame the debate by promoting the legitimacy of certain representations and accounts†¦viewers are active but within the parameters set by the text.† According to Ward (2002: 405), the micro-level equivalent to this function would be that of agenda-priming, where â€Å"individuals make judgments about issues based on information immediately on hand and from easily retrieved memories†. The constant coverage of the war in all the different news mediums means that viewers would believe that the war is an important issue, worthy of thought and discussion. While news from the traditional forms of media like television, radio and newspapers may be limited by time and space constraints, as well as being highly selective and bias, the emergence of the Internet has made it possible for people to garner information about the war from all angles. This development of technology makes it possible for viewers to get a balanced view of the war through alternate sources from the Internet in the comfort of their homes, â€Å"particularly in Australia, where computer ownership and Internet access is becoming widespread† (Singleton et al 2003: 369). The public can now choose to educate themselves by getting both sides of the story, from both the western media, as well as the angle taken by the Gulf media. † Nevertheless, quality coverage and a challenge to political agenda setting will depend on the use of insights from both the domestic and foreign environments to extend the parameters of news coverage, commentary and debate in the Australian media† (Payne 2000: 167). According to investigative journalist John Pilger, (in Propaganda Wars 2003:3), â€Å"the quality of the debate is very high among the public†¦turn to the letters page or †¦listen to people in their homes and shops†. Instead of taking an apathetic attitude towards this Gulf War, the public has taken a more pro-active stand by organising peace rallies as well as setting up various charities and donations for post-war Iraq. Hence, even though there is some form of media bias present in the pervasive coverage of the war in all forms of media locally, it has nevertheless contributed to the â€Å"reasoned debate†, and not public hysteria over the war. References Agenda Setting – Setting the Terms of Reference, [Online], 6 February 2000 – last Update, Available: http://wwww.cultsock.ndirect.co.uk/MUHome/cshtml/ media/setterms.html [ 6 May 2003]. Fandy, M. 2003, ‘Perceptions where Al-Jazeera & Co. are coming from’, The Washington Post, March 30 B01, viewed 4 April 2003, LexisNexis All News. Frisk, R. 2001, Pity the Nation: Lebanon at War, Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press. Gray, P. 2002, Psychology, 4th rev. ed., New York: Worth Publishers. Lumby, C. 1999, Gotcha: Life in a Tabloid World, St Leonards: Allen and Unwin. Moeller, S. D. 1999, Compassion Fatigue: How the Media sell Disease, Famine, War and Death, New York: Routledge. Parenti, M. 1986, Inventing Reality: The politics of the mass media, New York: St Martin’s Press. Payne, P. 2000, ‘Coverage of Australia’s involvement in the Vietnam War’ in Foreign devils and other journalists, eds D. Kingsbury, E. Loo & P. Payne, Clayton: Monash Asia Institute. Propaganda Wars (radio program), 30 January 2003. The Media Report, ABC Radio International, Presenter M. O’Reagan. Pros and Cons of Embedded Journalism. [Online]. 27 March 2003 – last update. Available: http://www.pbs.org/newshour/extra/features/jan-june03/embed_3- 27_printout.html [6 May 2003]. Seccombe, M 2003, ‘Propaganda Games Give a Distorted View of Reality’, Sydney Morning Herald, 26 March, Available: www.smh.com.au/articles/2003/03/25/1048354604340.html [2 April 2003]. Singleton, Aitkin, Jinks & Warhurst 2003, Australian Political Institutions, 6th rev. ed., Melbourne: Longman. Tee, H. C. 2003, ‘ War – The ‘Ultimate Reality Show’, The Straits Times, 7 April, Available: http://straitstimes.asia1.com.sg/life/story/0,4386181610,00.html [8 April 2003]. Ward, I. 2002, ‘Media Power’ In Government, Politics and Power in Australia, eds. J Summers, D. Woodward & A. Parkin, Melbourne, Longman. Williams, J. F. 1999, Anzacs, the Media and the Great War, Sydney: University of New South Wales Press. Willis, J. 1991, The Shadow World: Life between the News Media and Reality, New York: Praeger. Wood, W. A. 1967, Electronic Journalism., New York & London: Columbia

Moral Philosophy & Sport – Hockey Violence

Karen Kyung Fuhrmann – PHL376H1S – February 15, 2013 Fist Fight: The NHL Doesn’t Need Goons Introduction Fighting in NHL hockey is illegitimate; it is not an essential part of the game and is merely gratuitous violence. There is no need for a â€Å"goon† on the roster of any hockey team, and fighting should be prohibited in the NHL.This paper will make the above argument in three parts: the first part of the paper will show that such gratuitous violence is not a necessary component of the structure of the game; the second part will show the counter argument for the legitimation of such violence; and the third part will provide a refutation of the counter argument. Fighting is Illegitimate in NHL Hockey The reason why fighting is illegitimate in NHL hockey is that it is gratuitous violence.Such violence is illegitimate as it gives rise to what Jim Parry calls a genuine moral problem, which occurs â€Å"when violence exceeds what is necessary for its succes s, whether used instrumentally or not† (210). In hockey, the primary aim is to score the most goals to win and fighting does not contribute significantly to that aim. There are other forms of hockey, like pond hockey or pick-up hockey, which do not include fighting.Fighting in NHL hockey is a mere consequence of a dominant model of competition, where external rewards can only be won by one party at the loss of others (McMurtry 205); this is translated into the commercial model of NHL hockey, and according to McMurtry, â€Å"†¦well-known and systematic pathologies of competitive conflict – violence, cheating†¦ and so on – are a law-like consequence of the dominant structure of competition and not a problem of competition as such† (201).In submerged and free models of competition, however, such pathologies do not occur (or as often) as in dominant models, because there are no ‘zero-sum’ rewards (external rewards that only benefit one p arty at the expense of others) to motivate pathological behaviour like fighting. Fighting is thus an inessential part of the hockey game. It is merely a negative effect of the dominant model of competition. The benefits of fighting (such as intimidation) do not outweigh its disadvantages (such as serious physical injury and wasting time) for ecuring victory – such violence exceeds what is needed to succeed and is a genuine moral problem. Counter Argument Fighting occurs to deter future illegal assaults from the opposing team and helps keep more dangerous play at bay. First of all, fighting serves as an informal mode of social control, because it is near impossible for a referee to view most illegal assaults (like cross-checking, spearing, etc. ) that occur around corners, nets, or when an official’s back is turned; especially with the speed and continuous play of hockey (Colburn 168).Colburn asserts that â€Å"†¦to accommodate both these conditions of the game an d also the demand for hard-hitting, contact type of sport, rule-enforcement in ice hockey has, to a greater degree than in any other major sport, been partially delegated to individual players† (Colburn168). Moreover, fighting serves as a deterrent for more serious assaults (with hockey sticks, and etc. ), as they give rise to intimidation and give enforcers a mental advantage over opposing players. Players view fighting as more honourable than illegitimate assaults (a. k. a. heap shots), and fighting directly calls out such occurrences. Unlike cheap shots, there are implicit standards for fighting known as â€Å"the code†. Such standards for fighting affirm that only two players are allowed to fight at a given time, both players must give some form of consent to fighting, and both players must drop their gloves. It is a misunderstanding that fighting in the NHL is gratuitous violence and Colburn states that â€Å"†¦formal rules of ice hockey do not coincide with the informal, social norms held by players as these pertain to the definition of violence† (156).Refutation Fighting does not help prevent more serious injuries from occurring/recurring, and the issue of accurate surveillance by referees can be remedied by removal from the game and future game suspensions. A 2012 article in the Canadian Medical Association stated that research from Boston University School of Medicine has shown that repeated head trauma can lead to permanent brain damage, and claimed that hockey enforcers are especially vulnerable with their consistent fighting. What researchers†¦ have found in the brains of three prominent hockey players – Rick Martin, Reggie Fleming and Bob Probert – should be enough to sway minds to impose a ban on all forms of intentional head trauma, including fighting, along with severe deterrent penalties such as lengthy suspensions for breaches† (Kale 275). With fighting and other intentional head hits, hockey has now been listed as a sport that results in chronic traumatic encephalopathy (CTE). CTE is associated with memory disturbances, behavioural and personality changes, Parkinsonism, and speech and gait abnormalities (Kale 275).Moreover, players often overestimate the level of protection their face masks and helmets offer. This can be a contributing factor to cheap shots and reckless play, which in turn leads to fighting. These factors reveal that fighting merely contributes insult to injury. Conclusion Overall, fighting does not have a legitimate place in NHL hockey and thinking otherwise can lead to serious injury for all involved parties. Harsher penalties for illegal assaults and fighting should be implemented for both of them to stop occurring (immediate removal and future game suspension) and remove any gratuitous violence from NHL hockey.Sources Colburn, Kenneth Jr. â€Å"Honor, ritual and violence in ice hockey. † Canadian Journal of Sociology. 10. 2 (1985). 153-168. W eb. Juhn, Mark, et al. â€Å"Violence and Injury in Ice Hockey. † Clinical Journal of Sport Medicine. 12 (2002):46-51. Web. Kale, Rajendra. â€Å"Stop the violence and play hockey. † Canadian Medical Association Journal. 184. 3 (2012): 275. Web. McMurtry, John. â€Å"How Competition Goes Wrong. † Journal of Applied Philosophy. 8. 2 (1991) 201-210. Web. Parry, Jim. â€Å"Violence and aggression in contemporary sport. † Ethics and Sport. Ed. Mike McNamee. London: E & FN Spon, 1998. 205-224. Web.